The Social Discourse Of Bipolar Disorder - 1643 Words

The social discourse of bipolar disorder is often punctuated by the classic manic episodes manifesting as symptoms such as distractibility, pressured speech, decreased need for sleep, euphoric mood, grandiosity, and problems with impulse control [17]. These classic periods of high energy are often intertwined in a cyclical fashion with periods of depressive symptoms, much of the time meeting criteria for major depressive disorder, as well as periods with no symptoms [17]. The frequency by which a patient moves through these states varies greatly from weeks to months to as little as a few days, namely â€Å"rapid-cycling† [17]. In addition to manic episodes, hypomanic episodes, characterized by similar symptoms but less severe symptoms than manic episodes, qualify the disease as bipolar II disorder instead of bipolar I which needs the criteria of manic episodes alternating with major depressive episodes [17]. Another subtype of bipolar disorder, cyclothymia, is characterized by depressive episodes that do not meet criteria for a major depressive episode but does consist of cycling with previously described hypomanic episodes [11]. While the stigma of manic episodes plagues patients with bipolar disorder, often the depressive episodes are what cause the most distress and impairment in daily functioning of patients with bipolar disorder [12]. The burden of bipolar disorder, which has an estimated prevalence of 4% worldwide, permeates throughout all aspects of society from theShow MoreRelatedInformative Speech : Therapeutic Recreation1532 Words   |  7 PagesThere is a lot of discourse communities but picking the right one that’s for you and can be challenging. A discourse Community has different areas of communities in today’s society that start with people interest to job communities. A discourse community is a group of people who has common goals or interest. Kinesiology is my major, but I chose my field of learning to be Therapeutic Recreation. The main purpose of Therapeutic Recreation is to rehabilitate and restore to help people to gain theirRead MoreSymptoms And Symptoms Of Jenny Symptoms1429 Words   |  6 PagesJenny symptoms has demonstrated that her current manic episode is congruent with the behaviors of 296.44 (F31.2) Bipolar I with mood-congruent psychotic features. Jenny met Dziegielewski (2015) type of moods that constitues a manic episode. The moods descriptors are â€Å"persistently elevated, irritable, and expansive with severe mood distrbances that lead to impaired functioning† (205). The DSM-5 involves the examination of four explicit critera. These critiorons must meet an intensity and timeframeRead MoreThe Mental Condition Of Bipolar Disorder1728 Words   |  7 Pagesperson who is living with a chronic condition. JD happens to have a treatable condition that affects his mind. Bipolar I Disorder, as the DSM-5, specifies, is a mental condition in which doctors do not fully understand. Through the more recent years doctors have gained understanding therefore able to treat the disorder more effectively. What they do understand is that it is a genetic disorder, it affects the moods and can impact an individual to be at a very high mania to a low depression. This spectrumRead MoreInsane Characters In Edgar Allan Poe And The Shining By Stephen King1569 Words   |  7 Pagesabsolutely normal (Wood). During the play, in act 3 scene 4 Shakespeare hints that Hamlet actually is crazy by having Queen Gertrude exclaim: Alas, how is’t with you That you do bend your eye on vacancy And with the’ incorporeal arit do hold discourse? Fourth at your eyes your spirits wildly peep, And, as the sleeping soldiers in th’ alarm, Your bedded hair, like life in excrements, Start up and stand on end. O gentle son, Upon the heat and flame of thy distemper Sprinkle cool patienceRead MoreCase Study Abnormal Psychology951 Words   |  4 Pagesbiological factors as well as the social factors referring to inadequate relationships. In the face of diverse definition, abnormal behavior refers to the deviating from norm, which norm is the typical behavior or characteristic of the population. As such, Jim behavior is abnormal because it violates moral and conventional mores of the society (Violates societal standards), as such causing social discomfort to others. For instance, Jim fails to recognize the social cues in conversation thereby annoyingRead MoreMental Illness And Its Effects On The Media Essay1324 Words   |  6 Pagesis often wrongly portrayed in the United States’ media creating stigmatization and misrepresentation. Mental illness â€Å"refers to a wide range of mental disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior† (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2015). Examples of disorders include anxiety, depression, schizophreni a, bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Any â€Å"negative attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are called stigma† (Wilson et al., 2016, p. 2) and stigma can contribute to progression of mental illnessRead MoreSchizophrenia And The Middle Of Creativity And Psychopathology2032 Words   |  9 Pagesestablished in a social setting, it is hard to envision an uncreative genius. Creativity comprising of both oddities and effect is subsequently key for agreeableness (Cropley, 2010). The thought of a relationship in the middle of creativity and mental sick well-being has mostly been maintained by infrequent tales or life stories of incredible craftsmen who battled with discouragement or liquor ill-use. Past studies essentially concentrating on schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have given some experimentalRead MoreAbnormal Psychology - Mood Disorders4501 Words   |  19 PagesABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY: MOOD DISORDERS A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person s emotional mood is hypothesised to be the main underlying feature. The classification is known as mood (affective) disorders in ICD 10. English psychiatrist Henry Maudsley proposed an overarching category of affective disorder. The term was then replaced by mood disorder, as the latter term refers to the underlying or longitudinalRead MoreThe Social Consequences of Learning Differences Essay1920 Words   |  8 Pages Learning differences have become an observed issue amongst teachers, parents, and mental-health professionals across America. Recently medical scientists have identified numerous different mental illnesses which range from simple dyslexia to bipolar syndrome. Amongst these professionals, there are many different theories questioning whether these illnesses should be treated, how they should be treated, and at what age children should receive such treatment. If these ailments are not addressedRead MoreSchizophreni A Serious Mental Issue2197 Words   |  9 PagesSCHIZOPHRENIA Two or more symptoms of the following is needed to be present for a period of a month at least in order to give a diagnostic: Delusions, Hallucinations, Disorganized speech, Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior. Negative symptoms: Social/occupational dysfunction, Continuous signs of disturbance persist for at least 6 months. Schizophrenia Subtypes:
PARANOID TYPE: Preoccupation with one or more delusions or frequent auditory hallucinations. None of the following are present: disorganized

Factors That Contributed The Civil War - 865 Words

Factors that Contributed to the Civil War Before the Civil War occurred in 1861 the North and South had major differences that would create factors leading to the war. For example the North originated as a religious safe haven while the South was all about producing goods so they had very different ideas of what life should be like. These different ideas lead to disagreements later down the road regarding methods of labor, decisions for new land and who they thought should govern them. All of these became factors that led to the Civil War. To begin with, the North and the South had very different starting points. When the South came to settle in Jamestown they came to work and make money (Lecture, â€Å"Southern Colonies†). They grew accustom to using slaves as a way to get all the work done and to avoid spending money on hired workers. On the other hand when the South came to settle their â€Å"City Upon a Hill† it was to escape England because, over there, they didnâ €™t approve of them being Puritans (Lecture, â€Å"Northern Colonies†). They came to practice their religion freely and did all the labor work they needed on their own without the use of slaves. In general the North seemed the get along with others a lot better than the South, being able to befriend the local Indians while the South couldn’t (Lecture, â€Å"Northern Colonies†). It appears that these early relations influenced the North since they still had the better social skills out of the two. All of these early differences inShow MoreRelatedCivil War Essay: The Major Contributing Factors to the Civil War888 Words   |  3 Pagesblame as the cause of the civil war the issue of slavery. This is understandable; many people in the U.S. at the time were against slavery, going to far as to help runaway slaves escape to the free north. But, while slavery at face value was a major factor, international politics and economics played a major role. Several factors , including the election of Lincoln, the raid on Harper s Ferry, the Dred Scott decision, and, most importantly, the fugitive slave law, contributed to the growing rift betweenRead MoreEssay about Analyzing the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War727 Words   |  3 PagesAnalyzing the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War In order to validate the statement, â€Å"The years from 1952 to 1975 in U.S. history were marked by tremendous political and social turmoil that led to major changes in American society,† one would have to evaluate the role played by the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War in bringing about and contributing to those changes. The purpose of this essay is to evaluate whether or not the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movement indeed contributedRead MoreOverview of American History Since Civil War1235 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican History since Civil War Name Professor Institution Course Date American History since Civil War Identify at least two (2) major historical turning points in the period under discussion. There are several historical turning points in the History of the United States of America since the aspect of the civil war. One of the essential historical turning points is the end of the cold war in 1989 thus falling of the Berlin war. Another historical turning point is the aspect of the digitalRead MoreHow Far Do You Agree That Trotsky’s Leadership of the Red Army Was Responsible for the Survival of the Bolshevik Government? (30 Marks)1454 Words   |  6 Pagesgovernment? (30 marks) There were many factors that contributed to the survival of the Bolshevik Government, ranging from Trotsky’s leadership of the Red Army to the failings of the Bolsheviks’ rivals for power. This essay shows that the main reason for the Bolsheviks’ continued survival through the period was not Trotsky’s great leadership of the Red Army, but the opposition’s mistakes and failings. This will be demonstrated by analysing the key factors leading to the survival of the BolshevikRead MoreThe Effects Of Slavery On The United States1390 Words   |  6 Pagesamassed, outrage and emphasis for the morality of slavery caused outbreaks of rebellions and violence. Tolerance for slavery was not the only singular cause of the Civil War. Profusions of both short and long term causes contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War. The introduction of slavery had an ingrained impact, as the Mexican-American War significantly lead to tension, and Lincoln’s election sparked disunion between the nation. Four centuries ago from 1619 to 1861, the practice of slavery existedRead MoreAmerican Civil War and Religion Essay1155 Words   |  5 PagesOne of the important subjects during the civil war was Religion even though it received minor attention until recent years. Historians have considered civil war an important story of war; however, religion rose as an important factor with many publications. For example â€Å"Religion and the American Civil War† is a collection of essays and poems by various writers (Harry S. Stout, George Reagan Wilson, etc.1) A survey of the civil war history from around 1970 to the present provides a very extensiveRead MoreWho Is The American Civil War?1245 Words   |  5 Pagesthe American Civil War, their first thought is usually about how the Union and Confederacy fought over whether man should or should not have the right to own slaves. While this issue was the main cause and the biggest factor that led to the American Civil War, it is not the only cause or factor. In Jeffery Dixon’s article, What Causes Civil Wars? There are two other big issue that cause counties to go war against each other. Those two other issues are; economy and geography. Civil Wars are fought overRead MoreThe Strengths And Causes Of The American Civil War1394 Words   |  6 PagesFinal In this paper I will elaborate on reasons for why the Civil War happened between the North and the South. Overall it was a power struggle between the two to outline the country the and states the ways that they wanted it. Main reasons I have found which we will expand upon would be state rights, territorial expansions, slavery, Abraham Lincoln’s election, the Dred Scott decision, and industrialization. As you can imagine these are all issues which can and did have a big impact onRead MoreFighting For Peace By The Civil War1581 Words   |  7 Pagesover the world are united against all kinds of war. Peace therefore entails the absence of civil disturbance and the freedom to maintain the sovereignty status of a given country (Burdekin, 2000). A case in point involves the study of the American civil war that was fought between the Confederacy and the Union. Crucially, the paper explains why the Union was better prepared and well equipped for the lengthy war as oppos ed to the confederacy. The civil war left the nation undivided but eventually resolvedRead MoreThe Civil War995 Words   |  4 PagesThere were many different events that contributed to the start of the Civil War. The Civil war was one based on people and slave rights. It was a compilation of confrontations regarding the institution of slavery. It was a long-standing war where many such as President Lincoln strongly intervened. There were three events, however, that I believe were the most important events leading to the Civil War. These events included The Missouri Compromise of 1820, The Compromise of 1850, and Uncle Tom’s

Gender Stereotype Free Essays

Gender stereotypes are perpetuated through various means, such as expectations from society or institutions, and the creation of cultural gender norms. In Alice Munroe’s â€Å"Boys and Girls† , the protagonist began to realize society’s views of her when her father introduced her to a salesman, while she was working outside as his â€Å"new hired hand†, but the salesman replied â€Å"I thought it was only a girl† (Munroe 25). Her grandmother would scold her with commands like â€Å"Girls keep their knees together when they sit down. We will write a custom essay sample on Gender Stereotype or any similar topic only for you Order Now and â€Å"Girls don’t slam doors like that. † When a question was asked, her grandmother would answer â€Å"That’s none of a girl’s business. † (Munroe 28). Her mother was looking forward to Laird getting older so that she can be in the kitchen to help her (Munroe 26). After seeing one of their horses being killed, she made a mistake in a judgement call when she let the next horse run out of the property, and the father dismissed it because she was â€Å"just a girl† (Munroe 35). Girls are considered the weaker gender because they are prone to their emotions, unlike boys who are not so susceptible. Stevie Cameron’s â€Å"Our Daughters, Ourselves† speaks about the hardships and the unequal opportunities that girls have in the real world. She explains that we tell our daughters that they can be anything they want, but as they grow older, they learn that there’s still injustice. We are considered the weaker gender, we are to be more careful because we’re more of a target then boys are (Cameron 140). Stevie also explains that mothers tell their daughters that they can be anything they want to, but we don’t tell them it will be more difficult to fulfill their dreams. When she speaks of un-equal opportunities she is not just talking about careers but also public recreation, education, and politics. â€Å"Why do the boys get the best gyms, the best equipment and the best times on the field? Most of the school sports budget? † or † Why do the boys make more money at their part-time jobs then we do? â€Å"(Cameron 140). The gender role prescribed for women, or femininity, demands a submissive role, passivity, and ignorance while masculinity requires to be more dominating, knowledgeable and experienced . We have come a long way since then, and probably still have a bit more work to do in order to prove ourselves worthy of equality. How to cite Gender Stereotype, Essay examples Gender Stereotype Free Essays Stereotyping was an act of generalizing a group by observation of some group members, but later it becomes a popular belief and assumption to certain groups. Although sometimes these assumption made by stereotyping can be correct but most of the time it affects our judgment by oversimplifying our further observation on the others. People sometimes rationalize their stereotyping by ignoring evidence that contradicts the stereotype, thus created unconscious stereotype. We will write a custom essay sample on Gender Stereotype or any similar topic only for you Order Now Unconscious stereotype can lead to discrimination, under performance, and false understanding to certain groups. One of the unconscious stereotypes we hardly notice in our everyday life is the gender stereotype. Ever since we were kids, boys are socialized to be tough, aggressive, loud, and athletic; girls are socialized to be sensitive, passive, quiet, and nonathletic. â€Å"Parents encourage their sons and daughters to participate in sex-typed activities, including doll playing and engaging in housekeeping for girls and playing with trucks and engaging in sports activities for boy. † said by Susan D. Witt in â€Å"Parental Influence on Children’s Socialization to Gender Roles†. And because of this, boys tend to stand out more than girls, and girls did not usually speak out in public. Although it was only an issue of being passive or aggressive, but it had lead most male to stereotype female as less intelligent because of how most female did not speak out their opinions; so did I. And because of this stereotype, most men believe that women are not competent to work in a po sition higher than men and women are expected by men to be housewife. According to Chang Tianle, â€Å"If a successful woman does not assume traditional duties at home, she will probably be accused of being selfish and concentrating too much on her career and neglecting her family. † Women would get blamed if not doing most of the housework at home even though they are making the major earning for the family. As a male myself, I have thought that female were less intelligent and athletic than male. The main reason is because of the way media have portrayed female. In movies and TV shows, female were hardly the main haracters. In news, the important figures such as politicians were usually male. Even in a family, male usually seems to be the one that was supporting it. Later, there had been some false scientific belief that supports gender bias. According to Caryl Rivers and Rosalid C. Barnett in â€Å"The Difference Myth†, â€Å"Victorian-era scientists generally accepted as fact that larger brains of men made them intellectually superior; women’s smaller brains made them closer to children than to mature adults. But this had proven to be wrong; the brain size has now proven to be proportional to the body size and does not determine intelligence. But most false beliefs are still widespread and had lead to so many people believing that female were inferior to male, and I was just like most average male, believed that female were less intelligent, athletic, and not as worthy as male in the society. This unconscious bias created a world with most men having a higher status than women. According to J. D. Nordell in â€Å"Position of Power†, â€Å"women need to be 2. 5 more productive than men to be judged equally competent. It created an unequal work environment for women and took away their opportunities . Although now I try not to stereotype female as less intelligent, sometimes my judgments are still unconsciously affected by this idea of stereotype. In my biology lab, there is a girl in my group. At the first day of the lab, she was very talkative but slow on her work, so I unconsciously assumed that she might need my help in the following labs. But later I observed that she was actually doing better than me on lecture and had answered most questions that I did not know. It turned out that she does not need help at all. So I conclude that the reason why she was slow in lab was because she was being too talkative and was not focusing in the lab, and because of this, I had unconsciously labeling her with the stereotype of being less intelligent. The idea of stereotype affected my judgment while I was not aware of it. â€Å"Even though formal barriers to women’s workplace advancement have been dismantled, unconscious bias continues to interfere. †Said by J. D. Nordell in â€Å"Position of Power†. I agree with his statement because of a lot of phenomenon of unconscious gender bias still exist in our everyday life just like the experience I had in biology lab. People are too used to linking people to certain groups but not fully observing them, thus stereotyping occurred. As of now, I try not to let the thought of stereotype affect my judgment. But I believe that in some scale, stereotype has become a habit for me and also for most people. Although I try not to stereotype others, it still unconsciously affects my daily judgment. Being the same to aversive racism, unconscious stereotype is also hard to be eliminated. The reason of it is that people are not aware of it and they think that they are making rational judgment. And the self-fulfilling prophecies then lead the stereotyped to act in a way to confirm the stereotype. â€Å"If others perceive you as talented, you become more talented. If you are perceive as less able, your ability shrinks. † Said by J. D. Nordell. This unconscious bias then becomes a cycle. We perceive most women as passive, thus leading more of them not to speak up. Gender stereotype had made a great impact on people’s expectation on different gender. When we speak of stereotyping, we usually think of racism, but forgetting how it affects gender. And because of this, gender stereotype become so subtle. We usually do not realize it when we are stereotyping other gender. And sometimes the self-fulfilling prophecy can support our stereotyping. Stereotype then becomes a habit. Stereotyping not only affects the victim, it also affects the stereotyper. When we get used to stereotyping others, we eventually weaken our observation and reasoning skills. How to cite Gender Stereotype, Papers

Elisa and Antibody free essay sample

(1) Direct ELISAs involve attachment of the antigen to the solid phase, followed by an enzyme-labeled antibody. This type of assay generally makes measurement of crude samples difficult, since contaminating proteins compete for plastic binding sites. Indirect ELISA (2) Indirect ELISAs also involve attachment of the antigen to a solid phase, but in this case, the primary antibody is not labeled. An enzyme-conjugated secondary antibody, directed at the first antibody, is then added. This format is used most often to detect specific antibodies in sera. Competitive ELISA (3) The third type of ELISA is the Competition Assay, which involves the simultaneous addition of competing antibodies or proteins. The decrease in signal of samples where the second antibody or protein is added gives a highly specific result. Sandwich ELISA (4) The last type of assay is the sandwich ELISA. Sandwich ELISAs involve attachment of a capture antibody to a solid phase support. Samples containing known or unknown antigen are then added in a matrix or buffer that will minimize attachment to the solid phase. An enzyme-labeled antibody is then added for detection. The ELISA method is a benchmark for quantitation of pathological antigens and there are indeed many variations to this method. ELISAs are adaptable to high-throughput screening because results are rapid, consistent and relatively easy to analyze. The best results have been obtained with the sandwich format, utilizing highly purified, prematched capture and detector antibodies. The resulting signal provides data which is very sensitive and highly specific. Detailed information of specified ELISA types: Indirect ELISA, conventional but efficient Figure of Indirect ELISA Indirect ELISA is a two-step ELISA which involves two binding process of primary antibody and labeled secondary antibody. The primary antibody is incubated with the antigen followed by the incubation with the secondary antibody. However, this may lead to nonspecific signals because of cross-reaction that the secondary antibody may bring about. 1. Micro-well plates are incubated with antigens, washed up and blocked with BSA. 2. Samples with antibodies are added and washed. 3. Enzyme linked secondary antibody are added and washed. 4. A substrate is added, and enzymes on the antibody elicit a chromogenic or fluorescent signal. Â » Learn more about indirect ELISA protocol Indirect ELISA advantages : High sensitivity: More than one labeled antibody is bound per antigen molecule; Flexible: Different primary detection antibodies can be used with a single labeled secondary antibody; Cost-saving: Fewer labeled antibodies are required. In the indirect ELISA test, the sample antibody is sandwiched between the antigen coated on the plate and an enzyme-labeled, anti-species globulin conjugate. The addition of an enzyme substrate-chromogen reagent causes color to develop. This color is directly proportional to the amount of bound sample antibody. The more antibody present in the sample, the stronger the color development in the test wells. This format of indirect ELISA is suitable for determining total antibody level in samples (Newcastle disease virus, B. abortus, etc. ). Detailed information about indirect ELISA application in the determination of antibody titer and procedures of antibody concentration determination are discussed in the following section of ELISA applications. Direct ELISA, Simple and Time-Saving Initially in a direct ELISA test which is considered to be the simplest type of ELISA the antigen is adsorbed to a plastic plate, then an excess of another protein (normally bovine serum albumin) is added to block all the other binding sites. While an enzyme is linked to an antibody in a separate reaction, the enzyme-antibody complex is applied to adsorb to the antigen. After excess enzyme-antibody complex is washed off, enzyme-antibody bound to antigen is left. By adding in the enzymes substrate, the enzyme is detected illustrating the signal of the antigen. However, in terms of direct ELISA versus indirect ELISA, in an indirect ELISA, the steps are similar, but with important differences and an additional step. After the antigen is adsorbed to the plate (and after the BSA step), the next antibody to be added is the antibody that recognizes the antigen (this antibody does not have the enzyme attached to it). Then, an enzyme-antibody conjugate is prepared, which is added to the plate and detects the antibody that is adsorbed to the antigen (in a direct ELISA, the enzyme-antibody conjugate directly adsorbs to the antigen), then the substrate is added which detects the presence of the enzyme and thus the antigen. So, in the indirect ELISA, the enzyme-antibody conjugate uses an antibody against the type of antibody that is used to detect the antigen, kind of like a sandwich. For instance, if the antigen is HIV-1 gp120, then an anti-HIV antibody (HIV-1 gp120 Antibody) is prepared (lets say from a mouse). Then, in a separate reaction, an enzyme is attached to an anti-mouse antibody. So, in order to detect the HIV in the assay, an anti-mouse antibody is used to detect the antibody attached to the antigen. Direct ELISA SchematicIndirect ELISA Schematic Direct ELISA SchemaIndirect ELISA Schema Direct ELISA, when compared to other forms of ELISA testing, is performed faster because only one antibody is being used and fewer steps are required. This can be used to test specific antibody-to-antigen reactions, and helps to eliminate cross-reactivity between other antibodies. Disadvantages of direct ELISA The primary antibody must be labeled individually, which can be time-consuming and inflexible when performing multiple experiments. Also, the signal is less amplified in direct ELISA, which means a lower sensitivity and could be viewed as a disadvantage to some. Direct ELISA protocol is shown elsewhere. Please click direct ELISA appllication in monoclonal antibody screening to get more information. Competitive ELISA: Basic Principles The central event of competitive ELISA is a competitive binding process executed by original antigen (sample antigen) and add-in antigen. The procedures of competitive ELISA are different in some respects compared with Indirect ELISA, Sandwich ELISA and Direct ELISA. A simplized procedure list is as follow: Primary antibody (unlabeled) is incubated with sample antigen. Antibody-antigen complexes are then added to 96-well plates which are pre-coated with the same antigen. Unbound antibody is removed by washing the plate. (The more antigen in the sample, the less antibody will be able to bind to the antigen in the well, hence competition. ) The secondary antibody that is specific to the primary antibody and conjugated with an enzyme is added. A substrate is added, and remaining enzymes elicit a chromogenic or fluorescent signal. For competitive ELISA, the higher the sample antigen concentration, the weaker the eventual signal. The major advantage of a competitive ELISA is the ability to use crude or impure samples and still selectively bind any antigen that may be present. (Note that some competitive ELISA kits include enzyme-linked antigen rather than enzyme-linked antibody. The labeled antigen competes for primary antibody binding sites with your sample antigen (unlabeled). The more antigen in the sample the less labeled antigen is retained in the well and the weaker the signal). It is common that the antigen is not first positioned in the well. Competitive ELISA advantages: High specificity, since two antibodies are used the antigen/analyte is specifically captured and detected Suitable for complex samples, since the antigen does not require purification prior to measurement Flexibility and sensitivity, since both direct and indirect detection methods can be used Sandwich ELISA, Highly Sensitive Sandwich ELISA is a less common variant of ELISA, but is highly efficient in sample antigen detection. Moreover, many commercial ELISA pair sets are built on this sanwich ELISA. The sandwich ELISA quantify antigens between two layers of antibodies (i. e. capture and detection antibody). The antigen to be measured must contain at least two antigenic epitope capable of binding to antibody, since at least two antibodies act in the sandwich. Either monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies can be used as the capture and detection antibodies in Sandwich ELISA systems. Monoclonal antibodies recognize a single epitope that allows fine detection and quantification of small differences in antigen. A polyclonal is often used as the capture antibody to pull down as much of the antigen as possible. The advantage of Sandwich ELISA is that the sample does not have to be purified before analysis, and the assay can be very sensitive (up to 2 to 5 times more sensitive than direct or indirect ELISA), but lower than ELISpot. Sandwich ELISA procedures can be difficult to optimize and tested match pair antibodies should be used. This ensures the antibodies are detecting different epitopes on the target protein so they do not interfere with the other antibody binding. The steps are as follows: Prepare a surface to which a known quantity of capture antibody is bound. Block any nonspecific binding sites on the surface. Apply the antigen-containing sample to the plate. Wash the plate, so that unbound antigen is removed. A specific antibody is added, and binds to antigen (hence the sandwich: the Ag is stuck between two antibodies); Apply enzyme-linked secondary antibodies as detection antibodies that also bind specifically to the antibodys Fc region (non-specific). Wash the plate, so that the unbound antibody-enzyme conjugates are removed. Apply a chemical that is converted by the enzyme into a color or fluorescent or electrochemical signal. Measure the absorbency or fluorescence or electrochemical signal (e. g. , current) of the plate wells to determine the presence and quantity of antigen. The image at the bottom includes the use of a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme, though, in the technical sense, this is not necessary if the primary antibody is conjugated to an enzyme. However, use of a secondary-antibody conjugate avoids the expensive process of creating enzyme-linked antibodies for every antigen one might want to detect. By using an enzyme-linked antibody that binds the Fc region of other antibodies, this same enzyme-linked antibody can be used in a variety of situations. Without the first layer of capture antibody, any proteins in the sample (including serum proteins) may competitively adsorb to the plate surface, lowering the quantity of antigen immobilized. Use of the purified specific antibody to attach the antigen to the plastic eliminates a need to purify the antigen from complicated mixtures before the measurement, simplifying the assay, and increasing the specificity and the sensitivity of the assay. Sandwich ELISA Sandwich ELISA Schematic Procedure: (1) Plate is coated with a capture antibody; (2) sample is added, and any antigen present binds to capture antibody; (3) detecting antibody is added, and binds to antigen; (4) enzyme-linked secondary antibody is added, and binds to detecting antibody; (5) substrate is added, and is converted by enzyme to detectable form. Sandwich ELISA advantages: High specificity, since two antibodies are used the antigen/analyte is specifically captured and detected Suitable for complex samples, since the antigen does not require purification prior to measurement Flexibility and sensitivity, since both direct and indirect detection methods can be used Sandwich ELISA Protocol is shown in a different section. Sandwich ELISA is a common tool to diagnose Influenza, e. g. H5N1 (Avian Flu) Hemagglutinin ELISA kit. In addition, a description of the application of sandwich ELISA to home pregnancy test can be found here.